luke Introduction - The Visual Bible Explorer Series

Introduction B

0.1.1 The Author

It is generally agreed that the author of the Gospel of Luke is also the author of the book of Acts. Both are addressed to the same individual Theophilus, and the language and structure of the two books indicate that both were written by the same person. Certain passages in the book of Acts as well as some early Christian writings point to Luke, Paul’s dear friend (Col 4:14) and fellow worker (Phm 24), as the most likely author of this Gospel.

Luke was thought to be a Gentile by birth, well educated in Greek culture, and a doctor by profession (Col 4:14). He travelled with Paul at various times, from Paul’s second missionary journey to his first imprisonment in Rome. He was a loyal friend who remained with Paul after others had deserted him (2 Ti 4:11). Early church tradition suggests that Luke probably came from Antioch in Syria or from Philippi in Macedonia.

0.1.2 Date and Place of Writing

The two dates most commonly agreed upon by scholars are the early 60s (A.D. 59-63), and late 70s or early 80s (A.D. 75-85). Luke probably wrote his Gospel in Rome, although other places have been suggested, like Achaia, Ephesus and Caesarea.

0.1.3 Purpose of Writing

The Gospel was written as an orderly, carefully researched account of the life and ministry of Jesus Christ for an individual called Theophilus, whose name means ‘one who loves God’ (1:3). He was possibly a Roman official or someone of high position and wealth. He was most likely Luke’s patron, responsible for seeing that Luke’s writings were copied and distributed. Although Luke wrote the Gospel for Theophilus’ instruction, and the instruction of those among whom the book would be circulated, he had a theological purpose in his writing as well.

Central to both Luke and Acts is the theme of God’s salvation and the proclamation of the Good News of Jesus Christ to the whole world. One of Luke’s purposes is to show that the gospel is universal, that Jesus has broken down the barrier between the Jews and Gentiles, and established a world-wide community in which the old inequalities between Jews and Gentiles, slaves and free, and between men and women no longer exist. Luke wrote both his books with a Gentile readership in mind.

0.1.4 The ‘Gospel’

The term ‘gospel’ comes from the Greek word euangelion that basically means ‘good news’. It was used by Jesus and his first followers to mean the Good News that God had sent Jesus to fulfil His promises and establish His Kingdom through Jesus’ death and resurrection. When we use the word ‘to evangelise’, we mean therefore ‘to bring good news’.

Later the Church began to use the word ‘gospel’ for the writings that told this story – Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Among the four Gospels, the first three – Matthew, Mark, Luke – form a special group called the Synoptic Gospels.

The word ‘synoptic’ means ‘giving a common view’ or ‘to see together’. Many of their stories are similar. Although each of them has its own unique content, outline and style, the wording in many parts and the arrangement of the contents are quite similar as well. The Gospel of Luke is the most comprehensive of the three Synoptic Gospels. It is also the longest book of the New Testament.

0.1.5 Language and Style

Luke wrote in Greek. He had an outstanding command of the language, with an extensive and rich vocabulary. His Greek is one of the finest in the New Testament.

0.1.6 Special Themes in Luke

Each of the four Gospels in the New Testament has its own special themes and emphases even though they deal with similar material. Luke’s Gospel is the longest Gospel (in terms of length, not of chapters) and contains the most complete record of the life and ministry of Jesus. The following are the themes characteristic of the Gospel of Luke:

0.1.6.1 God and the salvation He offers through Jesus Christ

This is the primary theme of Luke and Acts. Luke presents the works and teachings of Jesus that are especially important to understand what salvation is all about.

0.1.6.2 The place of both Gentiles and Jews in God’s plan of salvation

Luke’s Gospel is well-known for its ‘universalism’ in the sense that the gospel message is meant for all people, and not just for the Jews. There are many indications that Luke has Gentile readers in mind in the writing of his Gospel.

0.1.6.3 God’s special concern for certain groups of people

Throughout Luke’s Gospel, there is considerable emphasis on Jesus’ interest in and concern for people who were marginalised, i.e., set aside as of little importance – like women and children who were counted of little value during the time of Jesus, the poor, and the ‘sinners’ (social outcasts) like the tax collectors. The Samaritans who were regarded with hatred by the Jews were also treated with compassion by Jesus.

0.1.6.4 Prayer

There is a strong emphasis on prayer in Luke’s Gospel as seen in his record of Jesus’ prayers and his teaching on prayer as well. Of the nine recorded prayers of Jesus, seven do not appear in any of the other Gospels; they show Jesus at prayer before each great crisis in his life. Two parables which are found only in Luke deal with prayer.

0.1.6.5 Praise, Thanksgiving and Joy

The Gospel of Luke begins and ends with rejoicing and worship. He records some of the great hymns of the Christian faith – he song of the angels at Jesus’ birth, Mary’s Magnificat and Zechariah’s Benedictus. There is frequent reference to praising, blessing or glorifying God. The verb ‘rejoice’ and the noun ‘joy’ are also found often in this Gospel. There is joy when Zaccheus receives Jesus; there is joy over the finding of the lost sheep and coin on earth; and there is joy in heaven over the finding of lost sinners.

0.1.6.6 The Holy Spirit

The person and the work of the Holy Spirit are given special emphasis in Luke’s Gospel. He has more to say about the Spirit than any of the other Gospel writers. There are 17 references to the Holy Spirit in Luke’s Gospel, as many as the Gospels of Matthew and Mark combined.

The Spirit is already prominent in this Gospel from the beginning. When Jesus was about to begin his ministry, several references were made to the Holy Spirit. After the resurrection, the Holy Spirit is again mentioned in reference to his coming to fill Jesus’ disciples with power. In the book of Acts, we receive the full thrust of Luke’s emphasis because that book is full of the activity of the Holy Spirit.

0.1.6.7 Other Emphases

Luke also has a number of stories which are unique to his Gospel. His is the only Gospel that records the events leading to the conception and birth of John the Baptist as well as Jesus. He is the only Gospel writer who gives us a glimpse of what happened to Jesus after his birth and during his childhood years. In the section describing Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem (9:51- 19:27), Luke gives us many of the most famous parables not recorded in any of the other Gospels (the Good Samaritan, Prodigal Son, and others). Finally, Luke gives material concerning Jesus’ resurrection that is quite different from the other Gospels. He is also the only Gospel writer to describe the ascension of Jesus.

0.1.7 Diagrammatic Outline of Luke

0.2.1 Jesus and Prayer

A. Jesus at Prayer

At his baptism 3:21
After healing the leper 5:16
Before calling his 12 apostles 6:12
At his transfiguration 9:28-29
In the Garden of Gethsemane 22:41-45
On the cross for his murderers 23:34
On the cross, committing his spirit to God 23:46

B. Jesus’ Teaching on Prayer

The Lord’s Prayer 11:2-4
Parable of the Friend at Midnight 11:5-13
Parable of the Widow and the Judge 18:1-8
Parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector18:10-14

0.2.2 The Parables of Jesus

New Cloth on Old Coat 5:36
New Wine in Old Wineskins 5:37-38
Wise and Foolish Builders 6:47-49
The Moneylender and the Two Debtors * 7:41-42
The Sower 8:4-8
The Good Samaritan * 10:30-37
The Friend at Midnight * 11:5-8
The Rich Fool * 12:16-21
The Watchful Servants 12:35-38
The Faithful and the Unfaithful Servant 12:42-48
The Barren Fig Tree * 13:6-9
The Mustard Seed 13:18-19
The Yeast 13:20-21
The Wedding Feast 14:8-11
The Great Feast 14:16-24
The Man Building a Tower 14:28-30
The King Going to War 14:31-32
The Lost Sheep 15:3-7
The Lost Coin * 15:8-10
The Prodigal Son * 15:11-32
The Shrewd Manager * 16:1-8
The Rich Man and Lazarus * 16:19-31
The Widow and the Judge * 18:2-5
The Pharisee and the Tax Collector * 18:10-14
The Gold Coins 19:12-27
The Wicked Tenants 20:9-16

The parables which have the * beside them are found only in the Gospel of Luke. There are 11 of them altogether.

0.2.3 The Appearances of Angels

The angel Gabriel to Zechariah in the Temple 1:11
The angel Gabriel to Mary at Nazareth 1:26
The angel and angels to the shepherds at Bethlehem 2:9, 13
The angel strengthening Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane 22:43
The angels at the tomb to the women 24:4

0.2.4 The Events of Holy Week (Passion Week)

‘Holy Week’ or ‘Passion Week’ (‘passion’ meaning ‘suffering’) refers to the week of Christ’s suffering leading to his death.
1st Day – Sunday (19:28-44)
a. The triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem riding on a colt
2nd Day – Monday (19:45-48)
a. Jesus cleansed the Temple
3rd Day – Tuesday (20:1-21:36)
a. Jesus taught in the Temple
4th Day – Wednesday
a. Day of rest. The Scriptures do not mention this day.
5th Day – Thursday (22:7-53)
a. Jesus observed the Passover meal with his disciples
b. Went to the Garden of Gethsemane where he prayed in agony
c. Arrested by his enemies (late Thursday night or early Friday morning)
6th Day – Friday (22:54-23:56)
a. Jesus’ trials and crucifixion
b. Jesus’ body was placed in the tomb before 6.00 p.m. Friday evening when the Sabbath began and all work stopped
7th Day – Sabbath
a. Jesus’ body lay in the tomb
8th Day – Sunday (24:1-49)
a. Jesus had resurrected; his body was no longer in the tomb
b. The angels told the women at the tomb that Jesus had risen
c. Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden (Jn 20:11-18), to Peter and to two disciples on the road to Emmaus, and later that day to all the disciples except Thomas

0.3 The Who’s Who in Luke

0.3.1 The Family of Herod the Great

0.3.1.1 Herod the Great

Herod the Great was the son of Antipater, an Idumean (‘Idumea’ was the name used by the Greeks and Romans for Edom). He was first made governor of Galilee and later king of Palestine by the Romans. He was a master politician, a ruthless fighter and a cunning man noted for his cruelty. For 34 years, he ruled over the Jews who hated him. They hated his pro-Roman and Hellenising (associated with Greek civilisation) policies and never forgave him for his Edomite blood. He tried to appease the Jews by rebuilding the Temple in Jerusalem, which took 46 years to complete, and by marrying a Jewess from one of the aristocratic families named Mariamne. Like most rulers of the day, he was ruthless. He murdered his wife, his three sons, mother-inlaw, brother-in-law, uncle, and many others. He was the king when Jesus was born. His jealousy of this ‘rival king’ caused him to order the slaughter of the children at Bethlehem. There was so much suspicion and jealousy amongst his own family that he put to death one of his own sons. Herod himself died in 4 B.C. His will divided his kingdom into three parts:

Archelaus (son of a Samaritan Malthace) took over the largest share – Judea, Samaria and Idumea
Herod Antipas (son of Malthace) received Galilee and Perea
Philip (Herod Philip II, son of a Jewess named Cleopatra) took Iturea and Traconitis

0.3.1.2 Archelaus

He inherited his father’s vices without his ability. He put down violently disorders that broke out in Jerusalem. This resulted in a wider uprising which required the intervention of the Roman authorities. In A.D. 6, Jewish protest finally caused him to be banished. Judea was then placed under the control of a procurator, i.e., a governor responsible to the Roman authorities. Pontius Pilate was one of these procurators ruling during the time of Jesus.

0.3.1.3 Herod Antipas

He was an efficient ruler like his father, Herod the Great, and was the tetrarch over Galilee and Perea. A tetrarch was a ruler over a fourth part of a kingdom or province in the Roman empire. Locally, his authority was similar to that of a king, and the title of king was often given to him. He is mentioned only as Herod and should not be mistaken for his father who died in 4 B.C., when Jesus was still a child. Herod Antipas was the Herod who ordered John the Baptist to be beheaded (Mt 14:1-12) and he was the one who talked to Jesus before his crucifixion (23:7-12).

0.4 Others

0.4.1 Pontius Pilate

Pilate was the fifth procurator or governor of the Roman empire in Palestine (A.D. 26-36) during the reign of Emperor Tiberius. His territory included Judea, Samaria and Idumea. As procurator, he possessed very wide powers, especially in military and financial matters. But because Palestine was difficult to rule, the procurator was directly responsible to the emperor.

Pilate was described as a harsh, spiteful man. He never really understood the Jews and he antagonised them almost as soon as he was appointed. He carried out many acts that offended them. Once he hung golden shields inscribed with the names and images of Roman deities in the Temple. Luke mentioned in 13:1 about Pilate killing some Galileans while they were offering their sacrifices to God. The Jews would either appeal to the emperor or would organise mass protests against him.

His fear of the Jews’ increasing complaints to Rome may explain why he tried to please the Jewish authorities at Jesus’ trial.

According to Josephus, a Jewish historian, his political career came to an end six years later when he sent soldiers to Samaria to suppress a small harmless religious rebellion, and in that suppression innocent men were killed. The Samaritans complained and Pilate was sent to Rome. Nobody knew what happened at Rome but after that, Pilate’s name disappeared from the official history of Rome. It was reported that he took his own life.

0.4.2 Caesar

There were two emperors of Rome during Jesus’ lifetime. Caesar Augustus was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth. He was the one who gave orders for the census for the purposes of taxation (2:1). Tiberius Caesar was the other emperor during the years of Jesus’ ministry (3:1).

0.5 The Religious Background of the New Testament

Jesus was a Jew. The Christian Church began in Palestine with Jews being its first members. A knowledge of the Jewish religion or Judaism is thus important to understand the religious background to the New Testament.

0.5.1 The Scriptures and the Traditions

0.5.1.1 The Old Testament

The Jewish people call their Scriptures the Tanakh, which is an acronym (a word formed from the beginning letters of a few words) for three words: Torah (Law), Neviim (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). This is the threefold division of the Old Testament as used during Jesus’ day. The books are the same as in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible but their order is different.

The first and oldest section is the Torah or the Law. It consists of the first five books of the Bible (also called the Pentateuch) and is a record of the instructions and commandments given by God to Israel to teach them how to live as a community of His people. This is the main source of Jewish belief and practice. The second section is the Neviim or Prophets. They are

divided into the former prophets and the latter prophets. The former prophets include Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings and outline Israel’s history from the settlement in Canaan to the exile. The latter prophets include Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve small books from Hosea to Malachi. They summarise the teachings of all their national prophets except for Daniel which is included with the Writings.

The third section is the Ketuvim or Writings. These contain the poetical and wisdom literature and were mostly composed later than the prophets. They also include books like Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Daniel and Chronicles (last book of the Tanakh).

The Law and the Prophets were read regularly in public worship in Jesus’ day. The Writings had not achieved a similar status although they were part of the Scriptures.

0.5.1.2 Traditions of the Elders

From Written Law to Oral Law

Although the source of the Jews’ belief and practice was the Law or Torah, it was soon apparent that certain matters needed clearer instructions. For example, the Torah ordained rejoicing at the feast of Tabernacles with palms, willows, fruit and leafy branches. The Jews would question exactly what fruit and leafy branches were meant and how they were to rejoice with them. In answering all such questions that cropped up, a body of explanatory, oral tradition accumulated around the written Law. And before long, this Oral Law, as it was called, became as binding as the Written Law. As Israel moved on in its history, the Oral Law grew as well, keeping in step with the history of the nation. Men of phenomenal memory would devote themselves to studying, memorising and teaching it. This huge body of oral traditions was finally written down and completed by 200 B.C. and is called the Mishnah.

The Mishnah deals with subjects which appear mainly in the book of Leviticus, such as sacrifice, food laws, ritual purity, adultery, etc. It tells us what the traditions of the elders were all about and how religious affairs were conducted. It reveals and explains much of the religious and cultural context in which Jesus and the people of his time lived.

0.5.2 Messianic Hope

0.5.3 The Nazirite Vow

A Nazirite was an Israelite who consecrated himself to God and took a vow of abstinence (from 30 days to a lifetime) for the purpose of some special service. The Nazirite, during the time of his vow was bound:

To abstain from alcoholic drinks
Not to cut the hair on his body
Not to approach or touch any dead body Samson and Samuel are the only people mentioned in the Bible who were Nazirites for life. It is not certain whether John the Baptist was a Nazirite for life because there is no reference to his hair.

There are two other instances of Nazarite vows (from the fact that they later shaved their heads) in Acts:

Paul is said to have shaved his head in Cenchreae because of a vow he made (18:18)
Paul joined the four men in Jerusalem who had made a vow (21:24)

0.5.2 Some Important Institutions of Judaism

0.5.2.1 The Temple

Three Temples stood successively in Jerusalem. The first was built by Solomon, the second by Zerubbabel after the exile to Babylon, and the third by Herod the Great. The simple temple built by the Jews under Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent structure which Herod the Great began building in 19 B.C. It was still not complete during the time of Jesus. It was only finished in A.D. 64, six years before it was destroyed by the Romans. It was a huge imposing structure of stones, marble and gold which brought about the admiration of Jesus’ disciples (21:5). The Temple proper sat in the middle of an area covering about 26 acres. Gentiles could enter the outer court only and this was where Jesus threw out the merchants who were doing their business (19:45-46). There were Greek and Latin inscriptions that warned Gentiles on pain of death, not to enter the inner courts which were reserved for Jews only. Here also under the porticoes which surrounded the court, i.e., covered porch supported by big columns, men would gather to listen to any teacher who cared to set up his stand. This was probably where Jesus was listening to the teachers when his parents found him (2:46) and where he taught when he was in the Temple.

Just outside the Temple proper stood an altar for burnt offerings, and a laver, or tub full of water, which the priests used for washing. Inside the first room or the Holy Place, and separated from the outside by a heavy veil, stood (i) a seven-branched golden lampstand that burned olive oil mixed with other substances (ii) a table stocked with bread representing God’s presence (iii) a small altar for the burning of incense. Another heavy veil curtained off the innermost room. This is the Holy of Holies, into which the high priest entered but once a year alone, on the Day of Atonement, to make atonement for the sin of Israel. The ark of the covenant, the only thing that was placed in the Holy of Holies during Old Testament times, had long ago disappeared in the upheavals of invasion and captivity. Besides private sacrifices, daily burnt offerings for the whole nation were sacrificed at midmorning and midafternoon, together with the burning of incense, prayers and singing by choirs of Levites. Sabbaths, festivals and other holy days were additional ceremonies carried out in the Temple. These were all done under the watchful eye of the Roman troops in the fortress of Antonia which overlooked the courts.

0.5.3 The Nazirite Vow

To abstain from alcoholic drinks
Not to cut the hair on his body
Not to approach or touch any dead body Samson and Samuel are the only people mentioned in the Bible who were Nazirites for life. It is not certain whether John the Baptist was a Nazirite for life because there is no reference to his hair.

There are two other instances of Nazarite vows (from the fact that they later shaved their heads) in Acts:

Paul is said to have shaved his head in Cenchreae because of a vow he made (18:18)
Paul joined the four men in Jerusalem who had made a vow (21:24)

0.5.2.2 The Festivals

Closely related to worship in the Temple were the religious festivals and holy days of the Jews. Some were timed to coincide with the changing seasons, reminding them of God’s constant provision for them, and providing them with an opportunity to return to God some token of all that He had given to them. Others commemorated the great events of Israel’s history, the occasions when in a miraculous way God stepped in to deliver His people. The festivals were not intended to be observed just out of formality or as an empty ritual. The purpose was spiritual. They were to be a great and glorious meeting of God and His people.

There were three festivals or feasts in particular that all the male Jews who were physically able and ceremonially clean were required to attend every year. These were known as the pilgrimage festivals and were celebrated in Jerusalem:

0.5.2.2.1 Feast of Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread

The Passover was the first of all the annual feasts, and historically and religiously, it was the most important of all. It was celebrated on the 14th day of the first month (Nisan) of the religious year and it commemorated the deliverance of the Jews from Egypt and the establishment of Israel as a nation by God’s redemptive act.

The Feast of Unleavened Bread began on the day after the Passover and lasted seven days. By the time of Jesus, the names of both the feasts had come to be used interchangeably.

0.5.2.2.2 Feast of Weeks (Harvest, Firstfruits)

This was later known as Pentecost (means ‘fiftieth’) and was celebrated 50 days after the beginning of Passover. It was essentially an agricultural celebration during which the first fruits of the harvest were offered to God.

0.5.2.2.3 Feast of Tabernacles (Booths, Ingathering)

This began five days after the Day of Atonement (day to atone for the sin of the nation) and lasted for seven days. This was an autumn festival at the end of the fruit harvest. The people lived for seven days in shelters made of branches. It was essentially an agricultural thanksgiving and also a reminder of their tent-dwelling days in the wilderness. The rest were the weekly Sabbath, the Feast of Trumpets, the Day of Atonement, the Feast of Lights, and the Feast of Purim.

0.5.3 The Synagogue

There was only one Temple but each community had its own synagogue. It is believed that this started since the time when the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the first Temple built by Solomon and deported most of the Jews from Judea. The Jews would establish local centres of worship called synagogues (‘assemblies’) wherever ten adult Jewish men could be found. Once established as an institution, synagogues remained and multiplied even after the rebuilding of the Temple under Zerubbabel.

Here there was no sacrificial ritual. It was the local centre for worship and study of the Law. On the Sabbath, the community would meet, men and women seated apart, to listen to the reading and exposition of the set passages from the Law and the Prophets (4:16ff), and joining in the set prayers. In its simplest form, the typical synagogue consisted of a rectangular room, perhaps having a raised speaker’s platform behind which rested a portable chest containing Old Testament scrolls. The congregation sat on stone benches running along two or three walls, and on mats or chairs in the centre of the room. In front, facing the congregation, sat the ruler or head of the synagogue and the elders.

To read from an Old Testament scroll, the speaker stood, and to preach, he sat down (4:16-21). For prayer, everyone stood. The ruler presided over the meetings, introduced strangers, selected different members of the congregation to read Scripture and preach. Qualified visitors were invited to speak, a practice which opened many opportunities for Jesus and Paul to preach the gospel in the synagogues.

The synagogue was more than a centre for religious worship on the Sabbath. During the week, it functioned as the community centre, the centre of local government, and the local school for the education of the Jewish children and the study of the Old Testament. This study tended to obscure the importance of the offering of sacrifices in the Temple. As a result, the rabbi or teacher of the Law gradually became more important than the priests.

0.5.4 The Sanhedrin

The Romans allowed the Jews to handle many of their own religious and domestic matters. As a result, numerous local courts existed. Outranking them all was the Sanhedrin, the highest Jewish court, which met daily, except for Sabbath and other holy days, in Jerusalem. During most of the Roman period, the internal government of Palestine was in its hands. After the death of Herod the Great, its authority was probably restricted to Judea and that was why it had no judicial authority over Jesus since Jesus came from Galilee. However, in matters of Jewish law, the Sanhedrin had the full authorityto preside. By the time of Jesus, it could pass, but not execute a sentence of death. That is why Jesus had to be tried not only before the Sanhedrin, but also before the Roman procurator Pilate.

There were 70 members in the Sanhedrin, the members being drawn from three classes of Jewish society, the chief priests, the elders and the teachers of the Law. The ‘chief priests’ would refer to the acting high priest, those who had been high priests and members of the privileged families from which the high priests were taken. The priestly aristocracy comprised the leading persons in the community, and they were the chief members of the Sanhedrin. The high priest would be the one presiding over the Sanhedrin.

The teachers of the Law or scribes were mainly the Pharisees, though not all Pharisees were professional scribes. The elders were those who came from the more influential families of Jerusalem, mainly the tribal and family heads of the people and the priesthood. They were all, like the chief priests, mainly Sadducees.

0.6 Sects and Groups within Judaism

0.6.1 The Pharisees

The name ‘Pharisee’ means ‘the separated ones’. They were a religious sect or group that grew out from the Hasidim during the second century B.C. The Hasidim (‘God’s loyal ones’) were a group of pious Jews who staunchly defended the Law against the influence of Hellenism. They were the religious leaders of the Jews, and not a political party like the Sadducees. Middle-class laymen for the most part, the Pharisees made up one of the largest Jewish religious sects or groups. However, they numbered only about 6,000 during the time of Herod the Great and were spread over the whole of Palestine. They were teachers in the synagogues, religious examples to the people and self-appointed guardians of the Law. Their supreme concern was to maintain the purity of the Law and the traditions. They considered the interpretations and rules handed down by tradition as authoritative as the Scriptures. They pledged themselves to obey all the traditions and the Law down to its minutest detail and thus were a stickler for ceremonial purity. As a result, they kept themselves as far apart from other men as possible.

They could not eat with a non-Pharisee in case the food had not been tithed, i.e., one-tenth given to God. They became an organised group, very loyal to each other and to society, but separate from others. Inevitably, this led them to develop a ‘holier-than-thou’ attitude which made them look down on others who did not keep the Law as scrupulously as they did. Their arrogance, combined with their legalism which placed importance on following strict rules rather than observing

mercy and love, led them into conflict with Jesus. Jesus did not condemn them for trying to follow the Law, but he rebuked them for the proud and unloving way in which they upheld the Law. Even so, the average Jew admired the Pharisees as models of piety and devotion. It must be noted, however, that not all Pharisees were like that. Many like Paul, Nicodemus (Jn 3:1) and Gamaliel (Ac 5:34) were faithful and sincere in their following after the Law.

0.6.2 The Scribes

The scribes or teachers of the Law were neither a religious group nor a political party, but a professional class. ‘Lawyer’, ‘scribe’ and ‘teacher of the Law’ are the terms used synonymously in the New Testament for this group of people. The term ‘rabbi’ is a term of respect for a teacher of the Law. Originating with Ezra, the scribes interpreted and taught the Old Testament Law and delivered the legal decisions on cases brought to them. They studied, interpreted and taught the Law, both written and oral. Their role was to interpret the Law and its application to daily life. The disciples (‘learners’) of the scribes followed behind them wherever they went and learned by observation and rote memory the minute details of the Old Testament and rabbinic traditions.

By Jesus’ time, most of the scribes probably belonged to the party of the Pharisees, though not all Pharisees possessed the theological expertise required of scribes. Since their scribal activity was done without exacting a fee, scribes depended on a trade to support themselves. For example, Paul, who had received rabbinic training, made tents. Though Jesus lacked formal theological training, he was called a rabbi and he gathered disciples around himself. His teaching carried the weight of his own authority whereas the scribes quoted endlessly the opinions of past rabbis.

0.6.4 The Herodians

The Herodians were not a political party or a religious sect. They seemed to have been a small minority of influential Jews who supported the Herodian dynasty, and by implication, the Romans, who had put the Herods in charge. They were probably centred in Galilee where Herod Antipas ruled. They joined with the Pharisees to oppose Jesus.

0.6.5 The Zealots

While the Pharisees and Sadducees tried to make the best of Roman rule, many Jews sought to bring about the deliverance of the Jews more actively. They came to be called the Zealots. They were the freedom fighters, the revolutionaries dedicated to the overthrow of Roman power. They refused to pay taxes to Rome, regarded acknowledgment of loyalty to Caesar as sinful, and sparked several uprisings, including the Jewish revolt that led to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.

By the time of Jesus, there had already been many unsuccessful revolts (Barrabas was involved in one of them) and the people were ready for the overthrow of Roman rule. Intensely patriotic, their appeal was founded on the belief that subjection to Roman rule was treason to God, the true King of Israel. One of the apostles Simon was a Zealot.

0.6.6 The Proselytes and God-Fearers

Despite its intensely nationalistic spirit, Judaism attracted large numbers of Gentiles. To accept the Jewish religion was no light matter for a Gentile. He must accept circumcision, if a male, and baptism, as well as agree to keep the whole Law of Moses. He must in fact renounce his own nationality. Many who took this step were called proselytes, i.e., full converts.

Many more were attracted by the monotheistic (one God) faith and the strict morality of Judaism in contrast to the decadent polytheism (many gods) of Rome. They were prepared to identify themselves with the faith and ideals of the Jews but they stopped short of the proselyte’s full commitment. These people, many of them rich and influential, are known in the New Testament as ‘those who fear God’, ‘those who worship God’ or ‘the devout’.

0.6.7 The Samaritans

The Samaritans were descendants of the surviving Israelites of the Northern Kingdom. They intermarried with those brought in from foreign countries by the Assyrians after the fall of Samaria, the capital city. A mixed religion developed, the Samaritans basing their belief on the Pentateuch only. After the Jews came back from captivity under Ezra and Nehemiah, hatred developed between them and the Samaritans which persisted till the time of Jesus.

The building of the Samaritan temple on Mt. Gerizim that overlooked Shechem (Jn 4:20) set the seal on the Jewish rejection of this religious sect. Yet the Samaritans worshipped God as the Jews did. Their authority was the five books of Moses, the Pentateuch, which was more or less the same as the Jewish version. Like many of the Jews, they awaited the coming of a prophet like Moses. Jewish hatred and scorn of the Samaritans sprang more from historical and racial considerations than from any fundamental differences in their religion. The Jews saw them as half-breeds, both physically and spiritually. Samaritans and Jews were openly hostile to one another. Jesus, however, saw no such barrier and he reached out to them just as he reached out to the Jews.

0.7 The Cultural Background of the New Testament

0.7.1 The Diaspora (Dispersion)

It has been estimated that more than four million Jews lived in the Roman empire during the New Testament times, about seven percent of its population. However, less than seven hundred thousand of these Jews lived in Palestine. More lived in Alexandria, Egypt and Syria than in Palestine. Even in parts of Palestine, e.g. Galilee where Jesus grew up, there were more Gentiles than Jews.

‘Dispersion’ is the term used to designate the Jews living outside Palestine but who still maintain their religious laws and customs. ‘Diaspora’ is the Greek word used for this term. Those living outside Palestine were called the Diaspora (Dispersion) Jews. These were the descendants of the Jews who had scattered all over the Middle East and the Mediterranean region after the exile of the Jews by the Assyrians and the Babylonians in the sixth century B.C. Many of them went back to Jerusalem each year to celebrate the festivals.

These Jews fell into two classes: (1) Hebraists, who retained not only their faith but also their Jewish customs and language (2) Hellenists, who adopted the Greek language, dress and customs, while retaining their faith in varying degrees.

Especially from the time of Alexander the Great, many thousands of Jews left Palestine for the purposes of trade and commerce into the neighboring countries, particularly the chief cities. By the time of Christ the dispersion must have been several times the population of Palestine. The synagogues in every part of the known world helped greatly in the spread of Christianity, for Paul invariably went to them in every city he visited. About 250 B.C., there were so many Jews living in Egypt who spoke only Greek that a translation of the Old Testament was begun. Tradition has it that it was the work of 70 Jewish translators and so it was called the Septuagint (LXX or 70).

0.7.2 Languages

Latin was the official language of the Roman empire but it was used mainly in the western part of the empire. In the East, the main language used was Greek. Besides Greek, Palestinians spoke Aramaic and Hebrew. So most likely, Jesus and his disciples were trilingual.

0.7.3 Homes

Houses in the western part of the Roman empire were built of brick or concrete, at least in the cities. In the eastern part, houses usually consisted of stucco (plaster) and sundried brick. Roofs were tiled or thatch. Palestinian towns and homes, however, differed from their Greco-Roman counterparts and were comparatively backward. One entered a town through a gate in the wall. Inside the gate, an open square provided a public place for trade and social and legal interchange. Jesus would have preached often in these town squares. The houses were low and flat-roofed. They were usually built from bricks

made of mud and straw baked in the sun. Most people lived in a simple one-roomed house. Part of the room was on a slightly higher level where the people slept and cooked. The floors consisted of hard earth or, in better homes, of stone. Everyone slept on thin sleeping mats which they rolled up during the day. The livestock and domestic animals lived on the lower level.

A flight of stairs on the outside led up to the roof. The rooftop was used for sleeping in hot weather, drying vegetables, ripening fruit and for praying. Branches laid across wooden beams and plastered with mud formed the flat roof. These were easily broken and soon repaired which explains why the friends of the paralytic had no problems in making a hole in the roof (5:17-26). A parapet or low wall around the edge of the roof kept people from falling off.

0.7.4 Clothing

Men wore tunics, shirt-like garments extending from the shoulders to the knees. A belt or sash, called a ‘girdle’ was worn around the waist. They wore coarse shoes or sandals on the feet and a hat or scarf on the head. In cold weather, a heavy cloak is worn over the tunic to give additional warmth. Women wore a short tunic as an undergarment and sometimes a brightly coloured outer tunic extending to the feet. The more fashionable used cosmetics lavishly. The women wore veils covering the head, but not the face.

0.7.5 Coinage

During the New Testament times, money from three sources circulated in Palestine. There was the official money used throughout the Roman empire (Roman); provincial money minted at Antioch and Tyre (Greek) and local Jewish money, possibly minted at Caesarea. Therefore money-changers did a flourishing business. Money was coined in gold, silver, copper and bronze or brass.

0.7.5.1 Jewish Coins

Lepton – this is the smallest Jewish coin, made of bronze, two of which were equivalent to one Roman quadran (the smallest Roman coin). It is worth barely a fraction of a cent. See 12:59, 21:2.
Shekel – each Jewish male over 20 years old is to pay a half shekel as an offering to the Lord. During NT times, this was paid as a temple tax of two drachmai (Greek coin, singular is drachma), one shekel being the equivalent of four drachmai. See Mt 17:24.

0.7.5.2 Roman Coins

Three Roman coins are mentioned in the NT:

Quadran – this was the smallest Roman coin, minted in bronze, the equivalent perhaps of one cent. Four quadrans are equivalent to one as.
As – 16 asses were equivalent to one denarius. See 12:6.
Denarius – this silver coin was the most common Roman coin during the days of Jesus. It was the ordinary daily wage of a labourer. The head of the coin had the image of the Roman emperor. See 7:41, 10:35, 20:24.

0.7.5.3 Greek Coins

Drachma – this Greek silver coin was roughly the equivalent of the Roman denarius, each denarius being a day’s wages for a labourer. See 15:8.
Mina – this Greek gold coin was worth about 100 drachmai, and therefore equivalent to about 100 denarii, equivalent to about 3-4 months’ wages. See 19:13.

0.7.5.1 Jewish Coins

Lepton – this is the smallest Jewish coin, made of bronze, two of which were equivalent to one Roman quadran (the smallest Roman coin). It is worth barely a fraction of a cent. See 12:59, 21:2.
Shekel – each Jewish male over 20 years old is to pay a half shekel as an offering to the Lord. During NT times, this was paid as a temple tax of two drachmai (Greek coin, singular is drachma), one shekel being the equivalent of four drachmai. See Mt 17:24.

0.7.6 Social Classes

In pagan society, the lines of distinction between different classes of people were quite defined. The influence of Judaism resulted in less class distinctions among the Jews. However, the chief priests and the leading rabbis did form an upper class. Farmers, craftsmen, small businessmen and their families made up the rest of the population.

Among the Jews, tax collectors or toll collectors traditionally called publicans, were special objects of class hatred. The Romans collected many types of indirect taxes and tolls, i.e., those levied at ports of entry, bridges, crossroads and places of business, and sale of goods from their provinces. The direct taxes, e.g., land tax, were collected by their own officials. Rich individuals (tax farmers), usually foreigners, would bid for the contract to collect the indirect taxes for the Roman government. They would then employ others from the local communities, in this case, the Jews themselves, to be responsible for the tax collection. These Jews would be the tax collectors mentioned in the Bible.

Tax collectors were despised because (i) they collected money for the foreign power that occupied their land and thus indirectly giving support to them (ii) they collected more money than what was owed and pocketed the extra themselves, thus making themselves wealthy at the expense of their fellow Jews (iii) their work involved them in regular contact with Gentiles, rendering them ritually unclean. They were thus regarded as no better than robbers or thieves and in the Gospels were often linked with a group termed ‘sinners’.

Jesus’ compassion for the tax collectors is one of the astonishing facts about his ministry. The Good News of God’s Kingdom enables outcasts of all kinds to experience God’s grace. Luke champions this message more than the other Gospel writers and includes in his Gospel the most positive affirmations about them. Jesus’ inclusion of Levi the tax collector as one of his twelve closest disciples was probably most startling and offensive to the rest of the Jews, especially the Jewish religious authorities.

Slaves might have outnumbered free people in the Roman empire. It was common to condemn criminals, debtors and prisoners of war to slavery. Many of Jesus’ parables and sayings assume that slavery existed in the Jewish culture of his time as well. Many of the slaves had greater skill and education than their masters. Originally, slaves who had turned criminal were the only ones to be executed by crucifixion. Later, however, free people who had committed terrible crimes, also suffered this fate.

0.7.5.3 Greek Coins

Drachma – this Greek silver coin was roughly the equivalent of the Roman denarius, each denarius being a day’s wages for a labourer. See 15:8.
Mina – this Greek gold coin was worth about 100 drachmai, and therefore equivalent to about 100 denarii, equivalent to about 3-4 months’ wages. See 19:13.